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Check out these free Microbiology PDFs on http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/?page_id=161

POSTNATAL HEMATOPOIESIS (BM)
At birth, all the marrow cavities contain red, hematopoietic marrow; by 25 years, hematopoietic marrow is confined to proximal quarters of shafts of femora & humeri, skull bones, ribs, sternum, scapulae, clavicles, vertebrae, pelvis, & upper half of the sacrum.

Distribution of hematopoietic marrow remains essentially same throughout adult life, but fat cell content increases slightly with increasing age & more substantially after 70 years.

The proportions of HbF & HbA in fullterm neonates are, respectively, 50 to 85% and 15 to 50%.

The proportion of HbF decreases postnatally at different rates in different individuals, but adult levels of less than 1% are reached in nearly all children by 2.5 years...
(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/B.-HEMOPOIESIS.pdf)

BIOCHEMISTRY
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Metabolism refers to biochemical processes that occur within any living organism - including humans - to maintain life. These biochemical processes allow us to grow, reproduce, repair damage and respond to our environment.
A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule (reactant) and ends with a product.
•Catabolic.
A metabolic process in which complex molecules are broken down into simple ones with the release of energy.
•Anabolic
Process by which the body utilizes the energy released by catabolism to synthesize complex molecules. These complex molecules are then utilized to form cellular structures that are formed from small and simple precursors that act as building blocks.
•Entry of the Glucose into the Cells
Glucose enters cells by facilitated transport.
~Liver: Glucose enters liver cells by facilitated diffusion. It is an insulin-independent transport mechanism for the transport of glucose across liver cells.
~Extra hepatic tissues: Glucose enters adipocytes, erythrocytes, brain and skeletal muscle by facilitated transport involving carrier molecules. The transport of glucose across the membranes of these tissues by carriers is dependent on insulin.
•Glycolysis
Is the sequence of reactions that metabolizes one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate with the concomitant net production of two molecules of ATP. This process is anaerobic (i.e., it does not require Oxygen).
Pyruvate can he further processed anaerobically (fermented) to lactate (Iactic acid fermentation) or ethanol (alcoholic fermentation). Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate can be completely oxidized to carbon dioxide generating much more ATP.
Since most of the cells in the body extract energy from glucose, breakdown of glucose by glycolytic pathway is considered first among various pathways of carbohydrate metabolism.
Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol and comprises of 10 stages http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/CARBOHYDRATE-ME.pdf AND http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/GLYCOLYSIS.pdf)

LIVER PHYSIOLOGY
Hepatic Blood Flow (HBF)
Hepatic blood flow is about 1500 ml of blood per minute. It increases after feeding and with expiration while it decreases with standing, inspiration, and sleep.
•Regulation of HBF:
A)Autoregulation:
The portal venous system is passive, without pressure­ dependent autoregulation, and the major physiological factors controlling flow are those modulating supply to the intestines and spleen. Vascular autoregulation of hepatic arterial blood flow mediated by adenosine is present, but may not be of great physiological importance. Changes in hepatic oxygen consumption do not seem to control hepatic blood flow. There is an important reciprocity between portal venous and hepatic arterial flow with a reduction in portal venous input being associated with significant compensatory decrease in hepatic arterial resistance and rise in arterial flow. The mechanism for this relationship is unproven but may be due to adenosine-mediated arterial vasodilatation.
B)Nervous regulation:
Sympathetic nerve stimulation may reduce hepatic blood volume by up to 50 per cent...
(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/W.-LIVER-PHYSIOLOGY.pdf)

IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
The leading cause of microcytic anemia in children & adults is iron deficiency. When iron supply to the bone marrow is deficient, red blood cell production is impaired. New red blood cells released into blood circulation are poorly hemoglobinized and microcytic. The severity of anemia, degree of microcytosis and hypochromia reflect the severity & chronicity of IDA (Iron Deficiency Anemia). The early stage of iron deficiency can be recognized by abnormalities in serum ferritin, zinc protoporphyrin and serum transferrin receptor, whereas the more advanced stage of iron deficiency, iron deficiency anemia (IDA), occurs when anemia develops...
(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/D.-IRON-DEFICIENCY-ANAEMIA.pdf)

RHEOLOGY
•Colloids and Colloidal Solutions
The three fundamental types of mixtures are solutions, suspensions and colloids. A colloid or colloidal dispersion is a heterogeneous system between the two extremes of suspensions and solutions in which one substance is dispersed (dispersed phase) as very fine particles in another substance called a dispersion medium. These dispersed particles range in diameter between 1 and 1000 nanometers, yet are still able to remain evenly distributed throughout the dispersion medium...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/G.COLLOIDS-AND-COLLOIDAL-SOLUTIONS.pdf)

RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
•The Lungs
A double layer of serous membrane called the pleura encloses each lung. The visceral pleura adheres to the surface of the lung, while the parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity.

The pleura produces a lubricating serous fluid
(pleural fluid) that allows its two layers to slide
against each another...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/B.RESPIRATORY-PHYSIOLOGY-intro.pdf)

REGIONAL ANATOMY OF THE UPPER LIMB
~Parts and regions of the upper limb
• Shoulder region: junction of arm and trunk
• Arm: between shoulder and elbow
• Elbow: joint between arm and forearm
• Forearm: between elbow and hand
• Hand
~Surface anatomy of upper limb
Shoulder region:
•Acromion
•Spine of scapula
•Coracoid process
•Greater tubercle
•Anterior and posterior axillary folds
Arm:
•Medial and lateral biceps brachii
furrow
•Deltoid tuberosity
Elbow:
•Medial and lateral epicondyles
•Head of radius
•Olecranon
•Tendon of biceps brachii
Wrist and hand:
•Styloid process
•Head of ulna
•Dorsal tubercle
•Proximal wrist crease
•Middle wrist crease
•Distal wrist crease
•Tendon of palmaris
•Tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris
•Tendon of carpi ulnaris
•Radial longitudinal crease
•Proximal palmar crease
•Distal palmar crease...
(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/A.-UPPER-LIMB-ANATOMY-FLESHY.pdf)

VIROLOGY
A French-Canadian was one of the early pioneers of the basic biology of viruses - Félix d'Herelle. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites; they have to infect a cell, “hijack” control of the cell and cause it to make new copies of the virus. Viruses are not cells and for that reason, most biologists do not regard them as being “alive”. Viruses are very small, much smaller than eukaryotic cells, much smaller than bacteria...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/A.-VIROLOGY-INTRODUCTION.pdf)

PHARMACOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS
•INSULIN
If non-insulin monotherapy like metformin at the maximum tolerated dose does not achieve or maintain the A1C target over 3 months, then a second oral agent may be added to the regimen, a GLP-1 receptor agonist, or basal insulin.

Insulin therapy (with or without additional agents) should be introduced in patients with newly identified T2DM and frankly symptomatic (catabolic features like weight loss, ketosis or features of hyperglycemia
including polyuria/polydipsia) and/or severely elevated blood glucose levels [≥300–350 mg/dL (16.7–19.4 mmol/L)] or A1C [≥10–12%].

The clinical picture of T2DM and its therapies should be regularly and objectively elaborated to patients. Many subjects with T2DM shall require insulin therapy sometime during the course of the disease. For patients with T2DM with inadequate target glycemic goals, insulin therapy should not be postponed...

(https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Asween_Marco/publication/312643254_Clinical_Review_of_Antidiabetic_Drugs_Implications_for_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_Management/links/5890c4fb92851cda25689e6f/Clinical-Review-of-Antidiabetic-Drugs-Implications-for-Type-2-Diabetes-Mellitus-Management.pdf?origin=publication_detail)

CHEMOTHERAPY OF TUBERCULOSIS, MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM COMPLEX DISEASE, AND LEPROSY:
INTRODUCTION
Mycobacterial organisms cause tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) disease and leprosy. Tuberculosis remains the primary worldwide cause of death due to infectious disease. A number of characteristics of mycobacteria make these diseases chronic and necessitate prolonged treatment. Mycobacteria grow slowly and may be dormant in the host for long periods; thus, they are relatively resistant to the effects of antibiotics. Many antibacterial agents do not pe*****te the cell walls of mycobacteria, and a portion of mycobacteria can reside inside macrophages, adding another permeability barrier that effective agents must cross. Mycobacteria are agile in developing resistance to single chemotherapeutic agents. As a consequence, effective therapy of mycobacterial infections requires a prolonged course (months to years) of multiple drugs...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/k3.-CHEMOTHERAPY-OF-TUBERCULOSIS-AND-LEPROSY-1.docx)

SEROTONIN
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5–HT) is a biologically active amine that functions as a neurotransmitter and is found in non-neural tissues. It has complex physiological and pathologic effects through multiple receptor sub-types and is often released locally...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/C.iHISTAMINE-SEROTONIN-AND-ERGOT-ALKALOIDS.pdf)

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: VITAL SIGNS
The vital signs include the heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and temperature. Along with height and weight, the vital signs provide important screening and diagnostic information as well as monitoring data for assessment of short-term and long term response to medication therapy.(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/D.PHYSICAL-EXAMINATION-II.ppt-VITAL-SIGNS.pdf)

INTRODUCTION TO ANTIHYPERTENSIVE DRUGS
Free PDF Downloadhttp://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/C.-HYPERTENSION-INTRO.pdf

CREAMS
A cream is a semi-solid dosage form that contains one or more drugs dissolved or dispersed in a suitable base. They usually contain a water soluble base thus they
can be easily washed off from the skin.
They are often of a softer consistency and have a lighter body than true ointments...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/D.-SEMI-SOLID-DOSAGE-FORMS.pdf)

BRAIN ANATOMY
•CEREBRUM
The cerebrum located in the region of the
telencephalon, is the largest and most obvious portion of the brain. It accounts for about 80% of the mass of the brain and is responsible for the higher mental functions, including memory and reason...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/G.ii-BRAIN.pdf)

GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES FOR MEDICINAL PLANTS
Herbal medicines include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and finished herbal products. Herbs include crude plant material such as leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, stems, wood, barks, roots, rhizomes or other plant parts, which may be entire,
fragmented or powdered. The WHO guidelines on good agricultural and collection practices (GACP) for medicinal plants are primarily intended to provide general technical guidance on obtaining medicinal plant materials of good quality for the sustainable production of herbal products classified as medicines...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/A.-GOOD-AGRICULTURAL-PRACTICES.pdf)

ANTIRETROVIRAL AGENTS AND TREATMENT OF HIV INFECTION
OVERVIEW OF HIV INFECTION
INTRODUCTION
Combination antiretroviral therapy prolongs life and prevents progression of diseases caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The pharmacotherapy of HIV infection is a rapidly moving field. In 2004, there were 20 antiretroviral drugs available in the United States. Since three-drug combinations are the minimum standard of care for this infection, current agents constitute at least 1,140 possible regimens.The long-term management of a patient on antiretroviral therapy can be daunting, even for an experienced healthcare provider. Knowing the essential features of the pathophysiology of this disease and how chemotherapeutic agents affect the virus and the host is critical in developing a rational approach to therapy...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/N.-ANTIRETROVIRAL-AGENTS-AND-TREATMENT-OF-HIV-INFECTION.pdf)

THE MECHANISM OF ACTION OF TETRACYCLINE ANTIBIOTICS
Tetracycline antibiotics inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria by binding to 30S ribosomal subunits and preventing access of aminoacyl tRNA to the acceptor (A) site on the mRNA complex. (http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/L.-TETRACYCLINES-PROTEIN-SYNTHESIS-INHIBITORS-AND-MISC.-ANTIBACTERIAL-AGENTS.pdf)

THE MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIBACTERIAL SULFONAMIDES
The Sulfonamide antibacterials (such as Sulfadiazine and Sulfamethoxazole) exert a bacteriostatic effect by preventing normal bacterial utilization of PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) for the synthesis of folic acid which bacteria require for nucleic acid synthesis. More specifically, sulfonamides are competitive inhibitors of dihydropteroate synthase, the bacterial enzyme responsible for the incorporation of PABA into dihydropteroic acid, the immediate precursor of folic acid (http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/I.-SULFONAMIDES.pdf)

MECHANISM OF ACTION OF AMINOGLYCOSIDES
The aminoglycoside antibiotics are bactericidal inhibitors of protein synthesis that target bacterial ribosomes.
•They bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit and interfere with the initiation of protein synthesis by fixing the 30S-50S ribosomal complex at the start codon (AUG) of mRNA.
•As 30S-50S complexes downstream complete translation of mRNA and detach, the abnormal initiation complexes (streptomycin monosomes) accumulate, blocking further translation of the message.
•Aminoglycoside binding to the 30S subunit also causes misreading of mRNA, leading to premature termination of translation with detachment of the ribosomal complex and incompletely synthesized protein.
•Incorporation of incorrect amino acids into the growing polypeptide chain results in the production of abnormal or non functional proteins.(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/K.-AMINOGLYCOSIDES.pdf)

CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIARRHYTHMIC DRUGS
Class I
These drugs suppress abnormal Purkinje fibre and His bundle automaticity resulting from myocardial damage; permitting the SAN to regain its role as the dominant pacemaker.
•Subclass Ia
These prolong repolarization.
Examples
Quinidine, Procainamide and Disopyramide...(http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/J.-ANTIARRHYTHMIC-DRUGS.pdf)

GAMETOGENESIS
It is the process by which gametes are formed. Gametes develop in the go**ds (s*x cells). In males the process is referred to as spermatogenesis which involves the formation of sperms. In females it is called oogenesis which is the formation of ova...{http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/EMBRYOLOGY-LECT-A.pdf}

LEVELS OF DEHYDRATION IN CHILDREN AND THEIR MANIFESTATIONS

CAUSES OF COLOUR BLINDNESS
• Inherited as an X-linked recessive trait (red-green colour blindness).
• Achromatopsia: Autosomal recessive congenital colour blindness condition.
• Side effect of Sildenafil (Viagra®)—causes transient blue-green color weakness.
{Physiology I: Visual Physiology http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/?page_id=156)

PHARMACOTHERAPY OF SKIN DISORDERS: Drug Hypersensitivity Syndrome(DHS)

DHS is also known as drug eruption with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) or drug induced hypersensitivity syndrome (DIHS).
It is an immune-mediated reaction to a drug characterized by a skin eruption with systemic symptoms such as fever; and internal organ involvement for example the liver, kidneys and heart. Read more on DHS on http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/?page_id=163

Ever wondered what really goes on in the body during the sensation of pain? Learn more about it on http://www.pharmacyedu.co.ke/?page_id=156