Yfilios Solution

MATERIAL TESTS 1
ASTM C127 outlines standard procedures for the determination of specific gravity and absorption capacity of coarse aggregate.
Equipment:
1. Balance
2. Wire basket with 3.35mm or finer wire mesh
3. Water tank
4. Oven
Sample:
Particles larger than 4.75mm. Weight of sample should be prepared based on the nominal maximum size.
Procedure:
1. Dry the sample in oven to constant mass at temperature of 110±5°C, then cool in air at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours.
2. Immerse the sample in water at room temperature for 24±4 hours.
3. Remove the sample from water. Roll it in large absorbent cloth until all visible films of water are removed. The sample is now in saturated surface dry (SSD) condition.
4. Weigh the sample and record it as B (g).
5. Place the sample in wire basket and fully immerse it in water at 23±2°C. Remove the entrapped air by shaking the basket in the process.
6. Weigh the sample and record it as C (g).
7. Dry the sample in oven to constant mass at temperature of 110±5°C, then cool in air at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours, or until the aggregate is cooled to a temperature less than 50°C.
8. Weigh the sample and record it as A (g).
Calculation:
1. Specific gravity (oven dry) = A/(B-C)
2. Specific gravity (SSD) = B/(B-C)
3. Apparent specific gravity = A/(A-C)
4. Absorption = [(B-A)/A]x100%
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In this worked example, we need to develop an interaction curve for a 300x300 square column. The characteristics concrete strength is taken as 30MPa, while that for rebar is 500MPa. The concrete cover is 30mm. The column section consists of 8H12 longitudinal reinforcement and H10 as link.
First, we determine the factored material properties which we will adopt during the design stage. For our case, the design strength of concrete and steel are 17MPa and 435MPa respectively. Moreover, we define the maximum strain in both concrete and rebar based on provisions of the design code.
Then, we set the convention for the analysis process. The origin of trial neutral axis is at the top of column section. During the iterative process, region above the neutral axis is deemed under compression and those below the axis is considered under tension.
Up next, we derive correlations between resistance force and moment develop in both concrete and rebar, with the position of neutral axis, x.
Once the correlations are defined, we can proceed with the iterative process. In our example, the following x positions are used: 0, 50mm, 100mm, 150mm, 200mm, 250mm and beyond the concrete section.
The output from this iterative process is N-M (axial-moment) data pairs. These point should be plotted on axial versus bending axes, and by joining them we can obtain an interaction curve.

Along with this example, we have also developed a spreadsheet to ease your analysis process. You may get your spreadsheet here:
https://www.patreon.com/posts/spreadsheet-2-109866429?utm_medium=clipboard_copy&utm_source=copyLink&utm_campaign=postshare_creator&utm_content=join_link
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 43
Plywood is formed by gluing odd numbers of veneers. The grains of the adjacent veneer layers are placed perpendicularly to one another.
The direction of grain for the outermost layers is usually parallel to the long direction of the panel.
A veneer is a thin sheet of wood peeled from a log.
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We would like to present you an info sheet outlining some key properties for common shapes.
The shapes included are rectangle, triangle, trapezoid and circle. The key properties presented are area, perimeter and moment of inertia.

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 42
Glue-laminated timber, or glulam consists of sawn lumber laminations bonded with adhesive. The grain of all lumbers is aligned parallelly with the long direction.
Glulam can be manufactured in various shapes, such as curve, taper and arch. It is often used as a replacement for sawn lumber when there is a need for lumber with size greater than 6” x 18”, in which the sawn lumber in such size is difficult to obtain.
The nominal thickness of lumber used in glulam is usually 1” and 2”. The moisture content of lumbers usually lies within 10% to 16%.
A glulam is stronger in longitudinal direction and weaker in transverse direction. High-grader lumber is normally placed near the surface of glulam, while low-grade lumber is placed near the center.
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Base flow separation allows us to know which part of the hydrograph is contributed by quick-response flow i.e. direct runoff. To do so, we may use the simplest straight line method. Once we know the base flow, we can subtract it from a storm hydrograph and obtain direct runoff hydrograph.
A direct runoff hydrograph may be associated with an effective rainfall hyetograph. It is resulted from the subtraction of losses from hyetograph obtained for storm. Effective rainfall allows us to know how much rainwater is being discharged out from catchment, instead of being retained by storage components or infiltrated into the ground. The rainfall losses is usually expressed as phi index.

Read this post on our blog here: http://www.yfilios-solution.com/2024/07/direct-runoff-hydrograph.html
Watch full video here: https://youtu.be/64ixyg9SZFU
Watch associated shorts here:
Straight line method for base flow separation: https://youtube.com/shorts/FT00E8-T0xQ
Effective rainfall hyetograph and direct runoff hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/dxhvMNAWMqg
Example for base flow separation and development of direct runoff hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/I2PaxQDZd6Y
Determination of phi index: https://youtube.com/shorts/LVG8a3tOyZ4

In this worked example, we need to conduct structural design for a pad footing subjected to permanent and variable actions of 800kN and 400kN respectively.
First, by knowing the soil bearing capacity, we can determine the pad area required under SLS. Based on the result, we can set the value for footing width and length.
Then, we apply factor of safety on the action and calculate the design force under ULS. This force along with the footing area calculated from footing dimension we set earlier on, can give us the soil pressure developed under ULS.
With the ULS soil pressure, we can determine the bending moment developed in footing. The part of footing protrudes from column face is treated as a cantilever, and bending moment shall be determined accordingly. After knowing the design value, we can proceed with longitudinal reinforcement design. This step should be conducted for bending about both x-x and y-y axes. In this example, H16-200 reinforcement is used in both directions.
For section shear check, we first identify the location of critical section, which is 1.0d away from column face. Again, by using the soil pressure and protruding part beyond the critical section, we may determine the design shear force. For comparison, we treat the concrete section as unreinforced for shear force, and calculate its resistance. Should the resistance is greater than the design shear, then we do not need to provide shear reinforcement in the footing.
Punching shear check for the footing is conducted at the column face and basic control perimeter (located 2.0d from column face). The design punching shear force is compared with plain concrete shear resistance. Similarly, reinforcement should be provided when the unreinforced concrete is not enough to resist the force.

Along with this example, we have also developed a spreadsheet to ease your analysis process. You may get your spreadsheet here:
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Base flow separation is an essential step for us to produce a direct runoff hydrograph.
Let's learn more about it here:

Watch full video here: https://youtu.be/64ixyg9SZFU
Watch associated shorts here:
Straight line method for base flow separation: https://youtube.com/shorts/FT00E8-T0xQ
Effective rainfall hyetograph and direct runoff hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/dxhvMNAWMqg
Example for base flow separation and development of direct runoff hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/I2PaxQDZd6Y
Determination of phi index: https://youtube.com/shorts/LVG8a3tOyZ4

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 41
The modulus of elasticity of wood is the highest in the longitudinal direction, and it range usually lies between 1 million and 2 million psi (6.9 and 13.8GPa). The modulus of elasticity in radial direction is around 10% of that in longitudinal direction, and that in tangential direction is about one-half of that in radial direction.
The compressive strength of wood parallel to the grain is much greater than that perpendicular to grain. The compressive strength perpendicular to the grain is about 12% to 18% of that parallel to grain.
The maximum bending stress is also expressed as modulus of rupture. Failure of timber member subject to bending usually starts with wrinkling and crushing of compression zone fibres, followed by splitting or snapping of tension zone fibres.
The tensile strength of wood parallel to grain is the greatest of all strength characteristics. It is about two to four times the compressive strength parallel to the grain. The tensile strength of wood perpendicular to the grain is very small, and it is usually taken as zero during allowable stress design.
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For hydrograph studies, we usually prefer a single peaked skew distribution of discharge over time, resulted from an isolated storm.
A simple hydrograph can be segmentized into three major parts. The first one is rising limb, where the discharge through a stream increases with time, until it reaches an inflection point. Water storage within the catchment increases during this stage. The slope of the limb at the early stage is usually milder than that for later stage. The second major part is crest segment. This is where we can find the peak runoff discharge from a storm. The next part is known as recession limb. At this stage, the water storage built previously starts to drain out.
The shape of hydrograph is influenced by both physiographic and climatic factors. Physiographic factors revolve around the catchment characteristics, such as the shape and size of catchment, as well as components within, namely drainage, land cover, slope and urbanization. Climatic factors are all about the storm characteristics, including the rainfall intensity, storm duration and movement.

Read this post on our blog here: http://www.yfilios-solution.com/2024/06/hydrograph.html
Watch full video here: https://youtu.be/ZmCRDSt1Hhs
Watch associated shorts here:
Rising limb in a hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/eK0oHKRKBjI
Recession limb and base flow recession in a hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/ORu0YYiOcXs
Effect of catchment shape on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/kiZHOgTTPRs
Effect of catchment slope and size on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/B3UtjR0IY4U
Effect of drainage density on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/yE7Uh9JMOM8
Effect of land use on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/e0d7jS5RIj8
Climatic factors and their effect on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/GXUKYnWYZ_s

Consider a reinforced concrete section subjected to both axial and bending. We can develop N-M interaction curve for such section, and determine whether it is adequate to resist the combination of design axial force and bending moment.
First, we need to define the material properties. The characteristics strength of concrete and rebar needs to be adjusted with partial factor of safety, to obtain their design strength. There are also some limits to the strain that can be developed in concrete and rebar.
Next, we should define the column dimension, concrete cover, rebar and the reinforcement configuration. The exact position of each rebar needs to be determined at this point.
After all the parameters are decided, we can start the trial and error process for the development of N-M interaction curve. Each of these trials start with the selection of neutral axis depth, x. For example, we can use x equals to zero for the first trial. Any part of concrete located above the neutral axis is considered under compression, and the remaining part is considered subjected to tension.
For each rebar, we need to determine the strain developed using similar triangle approach. Then, from strain we can calculate the resisting force developed in each of them. As for concrete, the resistance equals to the multiplication of design concrete strength and area of concrete section under compression. By summing all the resistances from these components, we can obtain the axial resistance of the section for the first trial case.
The moment resistance from each force component on the other hand, is the product of resisting forces and their lever arms from the centroidal axis of section. By summing all them up, we get the total moment resistance of the section.
After we obtain a pair of axial and moment resistances, we can proceed with another trial by setting different depth to neutral axis. By plotting all the data pairs on N-M axes and joining them together, we eventually produce a N-M interaction curve for the section.

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What are the components of a hydrograph? What are the factors that affect the appearance of a hydrograph? Let's learn more about hydrograph here:

Watch full video here: https://youtu.be/ZmCRDSt1Hhs
Watch associated shorts here:
Rising limb in a hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/eK0oHKRKBjI
Recession limb and base flow recession in a hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/ORu0YYiOcXs
Effect of catchment shape on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/kiZHOgTTPRs
Effect of catchment slope and size on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/B3UtjR0IY4U
Effect of drainage density on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/yE7Uh9JMOM8
Effect of land use on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/e0d7jS5RIj8
Climatic factors and their effect on hydrograph: https://youtube.com/shorts/GXUKYnWYZ_s

In this worked example, we need to conduct structural design for a simply supported reinforced concrete beam subjected to permanent and variable actions of 16kN/m and 12kN/m respectively.
First, we need to apply factor of safety to the loading, and determine the design force under ULS. Then, by using the factored uniform load, we can calculate the design bending moment and shear force, which are found to be 242.55kNm and 138.6kN respectively.
For the design of longitudinal reinforcement, we need to determine the effective depth to rebar at tension face. Then, we can calculate both K and Kbal. In our case, since K is less than Kbal, a singly reinforced section would be enough to resist the design bending moment. The required area of reinforcement is found to be 1140mm2. By providing 3H25, we fulfil the requirement with As,prov equals to 1472.6mm2. This provision is deemed adequate as it lies within the minimum and maximum reinforcement area limits.
For the shear stirrup design, we first calculate the crushing strength when the strut inclination angle is at 22 degree. The value is found to be 448kN and it is greater than our design shear force. This means, we can simply adopt strut inclination angle of 22 degree when determining the stirrup requirement. As a result, the required stirrup area to spacing ratio is 0.262mm2/mm. The proposed H10-250 configuration fulfils the requirement as well as minimum limit.
Our concrete section is considered highly stressed. In relation to this, the basic span-effective depth ratio is found to be 15.18. By applying adjustment based on reinforcement area provided, the allowable span-effective depth ratio becomes 19.61. Since the actual span-effective depth ratio for the beam is 12.79, the deflection check is passed.

Along with this example, we have also developed a spreadsheet to ease your analysis process. You may get your spreadsheet here:
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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 40
Lumber can be broadly categorized as framing, appearance and industrial lumbers.
A framing lumber is commonly used in structural application for both conventional and pre-engineered framing system. This kind of lumber usually graded based on strength.
Appearance lumber is used for purpose where lumber strength is not the primary concern. This type of lumber is usually non-structural graded.
Industrial lumber is intended for specific industrial applications, such as mining, scaffolding and foundation. This type of lumber can be either structural or non-structural graded.
For engineering application, only structural graded lumber shall be used.
The manufacturing of lumber converts a rough lumber to dressed lumber. A rough lumber is defined as lumber with surface imperfections resulted from primary sawing operations. The dressed lumber on the other hand, is a lumber with its sides and edges planed or sanded.
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Runoff is an output from a catchment. After fulfilling the requirements for others hydrological process such as infiltration and evapotranspiration, the remaining precipitation becomes runoff and flows out from the catchment. Runoff can be categorized as overland flow, interflow and groundwater runoff. Other than that, we can also group them as either direct runoff or base flow.
Hydrograph is usually developed to aid us in analysis related to runoff. When using an annual hydrograph, we can determine the type of a stream based on the graph pattern. Discharge presents in perennial stream all year long. For intermittent stream, it is expected to dry up during the dry season. As for ephemeral stream, flow only exists when a storm occurs.
As soon as precipitation occurs, it needs to fulfil the requirement for various hydrological processes, such as evapotranspiration and infiltration, as well as detention storage.

Read this post on our blog here: http://www.yfilios-solution.com/2024/06/introduction-to-runoff.html
Watch full video here: https://youtu.be/v_lQySLBeao
Watch associated shorts here:
Introduction to overland flow and surface runoff: https://youtu.be/U9615f_5D9w
Introduction to interflow or subsurface flow: https://youtu.be/T2HAfR5YAJU
Introduction to groundwater runoff: https://youtu.be/y3JbKSZ-2kA
Stream classification using annual hydrograph: https://youtu.be/YlEN1A_uRDU

Before we conduct structural design of a reinforced concrete beam using Eurocode 2, we need to calculate the bending moment and shear force developed in it under ultimate limit state.
The longitudinal reinforcement in beam is provided to resist the bending moment. When the beam is subjected to sagging moment, the tension face is located at the soffit and thus, reinforcement should be provided there. The opposite case should be applied for beam subjected to hogging moment. During calculation, we check whether the value of K is below Kbal. If that is the case, a singly reinforced section is sufficient. Conversely, compressive reinforcement would be required. Based on the stress diagram, we can calculate the forces developed in tensile and compressive reinforcement under equilibrium. We then determine the area of reinforcement required, and provide them accordingly while adhering to code-specified limits.
As for the design of shear stirrup, we need to determine the diagonal concrete strut inclination angle. When the angle exceeds 45 degree, we should use larger section to lower it. The ratio of two leg shear reinforcement area to stirrup spacing is first determined, and subsequently the stirrup spacing, if we know what is the steel reinforcement we want to use.
The serviceability of beam, notably deflection can be checked using method stated in the code, rather than explicitly calculate the beam deflection and compare it with limits. This avoids tedious procedure. Span-effective depth ratio is the way for this, and to use this method we need several inputs: beam support condition, length, steel grade, ratio of provided to required steel reinforcement etc.

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Runoff is probably one of the most significant hydrological processes we need to know as an engineer. Learn more about it here:
Watch full video here: https://youtu.be/v_lQySLBeao
Watch associated shorts here:
Introduction to overland flow and surface runoff: https://youtu.be/U9615f_5D9w
Introduction to interflow or subsurface flow: https://youtu.be/T2HAfR5YAJU
Introduction to groundwater runoff: https://youtu.be/y3JbKSZ-2kA
Stream classification using annual hydrograph: https://youtu.be/YlEN1A_uRDU

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 39
When wood is subjected to moisture or moderate heat, it may decay if no protection is applied.
For normal structural usage, ordinary sawn lumber can be used directly in natural form. Coatings such as stains and paints may be applied to prolong its service life under an exposed environment.
Seasoned lumber completed with waterproofing technique makes the wood durable against most attack.
For wood in contact with ground or susceptible to decay, chemical treatment is required. Such treatment prevents the destruction of wood by fungi and insects.
Three classes of chemicals are commonly used to treat the wood: pentachlorophenol, creosote and inorganic arsenicals.
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