Interior villa

into an effective setting for the range of human activities that are to take place there. An interior designer is someone who conducts such projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that includes conceptual development, liaising with the stakeholders of a project and the management and ex*****on of the design. Interior design as carried out in the US is an almost entirely different practice to that carried out in the UK. What follows relates mainly to the US. History of the interior design profession in the US

In the past, Interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building. The profession of interior design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from the development of industrial processes. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession. Throughout the 18th century and into the early 19th Century, interior decoration was the concern of the homemaker or, in well of families an upholsterer or craftsman may influence the style of the interior space. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings. Towards the end of the 19th century interior decorating emerged as a profession in the Western world. This was due to various actions, particularly by women, to professionalise the homemaking process. Elsie De Wolfe has been credited with the creation of the interior decorating profession. Having successfully re-designed her own home, De Wolfe began offering her services to other people within her social circle. As people began offering interior decoration as a service the professionalization of this service gained momentum. This movement towards professionalization was reinforced by the publication of books on the subject. Publications include the book Suggestions for House Decoration in Painting, Woodwork and Furniture (1876) by Anges and Rhoda Garrett, Elsie De Wolfe’s The House in Good Taste (1913) and articles by Candice Wheeler such as Principles of Home Decoration with Practical Examples (1903). Most of the books were published by women and clearly suggested the profession was within the women’s domain, E.g. The two-part article Interior Decoration as a Profession for Women (1895), written by Candice Wheeler. As previously mentioned, before formal interior decorators evolved the job was the concern of craftsmen or upholsterers. This means that many ‘decorators’ at this time were dealers in the elements needed for interiors. This called into question the qualifications of the decorator and their standing as an independent advisor. This gave term interior decorator negative connotations for some, as a painter or curtain sales person can be a self-appointed decorator. Hence, the decorators favoured term Interior Designer. Interior design has now developed past the point of decoration and the terms, although overlapping, are distinct. The most prominent development of the interior design profession was after World War II. From the 1950s onwards spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the decorative arts specialists were made available. While organisations to regulate education, qualifications, standards and practices, etc were established for the profession. Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers, builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons the government of interior design standards and qualifications was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design. Organisations such as the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute, founded in 1938, were established as organisations that governed various areas of design. It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design Association was founded. Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organisations. Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession. Interior decorators and interior designers in the US

The profession of interior design is not clearly defined and projects undertaken by an interior designer vary widely. Terms such as decorator and designer are often used interchangeably. However, there is a distinction between the terms. Interior decorator
The term Interior Decorator emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It applied to those practitioners who specialize in arranging interiors in various styles. In this context style refers to a composition based on an image of a certain idea, time, place, etc. For example: Victorian, Georgian, Art Deco, Modernist, etc. The term Interior decorator also suggests a focus on designing the ornamental and the movable aspects of the interior such as the color, furniture, furnishings, moldings and paneling. A helpful way to make the distinction between an interior decorator and interior designer is that decorators can work within the walls of a room, while a designer also has the ability to move walls. Interior designer
Interior Designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on Planning, Functional design and effective use of space involved in this profession, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer can undertake projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require an understanding of technical issues such as acoustics, lighting, temperature, etc. Although an interior designer may create the layout of a space, they may not build the space without having their designs stamped for approval by an architect, which is why many interior designers also complete school to become architects as well. An interior designer may wish to specialize in a particular type of interior design in order to develop technical knowledge specific to that area. Types of interior design include residential design, commercial design, universal design, exhibition design, spatial branding, etc. Interior design specialties in the US

Residential
Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type design is very specific for individual situations the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of Interior Design. The interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodelling of an existing structure. Commercial
Commercial design encompasses a wide range of sub specialties. Retail: includes malls and shopping centres, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising and showrooms. Visual and Spatial Branding: The use of space as a media to express the Corporate Brand
Corporate: office design for any kind of business
Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities
Hospitality and Recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cafes, bars, restaurants, health clubs and spas, etc
Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and universities, religious facilities, etc
Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities. Other
Other areas of specialisation include museum and exhibition design, event design (including ceremonies, parties, conventions and concerts), theatre and performance design, production design for film and television. Profession in the US

Education in the US

Main article: Interior design education
There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of training and has previously been the most common method of education. Real-life experience can gradually build skills that professional design work demands. Training through an institution such as a college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice. A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organisation of interior designers, can provide training that is associated meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a student an education of a high standard. Supervised practical experience in a design firm after formal training produces develops skills further and results in one being a highly skilled designer. While one can become an interior designer without formal training, the knowledge and skills attained through structured education allows a designer to be better prepared in a competitive job market. Working conditions in the US
There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, which make up 26% of interior designers, usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs. In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permisioning. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality, relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations, however with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel. They also renovate a space to satisfy the specific taste for a client. Earnings in the US
Interior design earnings vary based on employer, number of years with experience, and the reputation of the individual. For residential projects, self-employed interior designers usually earn a per-hour fee plus a percentage of the total cost of furniture, lighting, artwork, and other design elements. For commercial projects, they may charge per-hour fees, or a flat fee for the whole project. The median annual earning for wage and salary interior designers, in the year 2006, was $42,260. The middle 50% earned between $31,830 and $57,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $78,760. For example, if a person opens a business and decides to specialize in furniture design and flooring, they will get only clients focusing on these topics rather than a variety of every type of issue that comes with designing a home. Art Deco style in interior design
The Art Deco began in Europe in the early year of 20th but was not so popular until World WarⅠ. The team "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes, which was a world’s fair held in Paris in 1925. Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in favour of more streamlined, geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of design, especially for interior design, because it was the first truly modern style of interior decoration in its use of new technologies and materials. This article will analysis the main features of Art Deco style in interior design by focus on the structure, material and color, and also will mentions the Art Deco style in furniture and lighting design which are the two indispensable parts of interior design. Art Deco style is mainly structured on mathematical geometric shapes, the most common being triangles, rectangles, circles and squares. The elegant and strong geometric forms consist of well-defined lines that provide clean shapes. The streamlined or curvilinear geometric shapes including stepped shapes, sweeping curves and rounded corner emphasize the streamlining style. The well-maintained Muswell Hill Odeon was an Art Deco style interior. Its lighting fixtures are very attractive, especially the illuminated ribbon running down the middle of the ceiling to the top of the screen, which create a charming streamlining structure with well-defined lines, and the circular light be placed in the recessed ceiling area provide a clean shape. For the Art Deco interior design is primarily characterized by the inclusion of a mixture of geometrical shapes, angular edges and clean lines into furniture, accessories and interior wall structures. The geometrical shapes, angular edges and clean lines of the Art Deco interior design style, offer a sharp, cool look of mechanized living. The spacious lounge of Chicago’s 1929 Powhatan apartments which designed by Robert S. Morgan was an Art Deco style interior with geometric element. These apartments note the geometric patterns on the ceiling’s light panels, as well as on the mouldings, grilles and pelmet. All of these geometric patterns provide by sharp angles and well-define lines that give the whole space a clean and elegant looking. As the influence of industrial power, the Art Deco has to be seemed as one of the most exciting decorative style of the century. The Art Deco reject the traditional materials of decoration and interior design, instead option to use more unusual materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors, aluminium, lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin. Stemming from this use of harder, metallic materials is the celebration of the machine age. Some of the materials used in art deco style interiors are direct reflection of the time period. Materials like stainless steel, aluminium, lacquer, and inlaid woods all reflect the modern age that was ushered in after the end of the World WarⅠ,and the steel and aluminium also reflect the growing aviation movement of the time. The innovative combinations of these materials create theatrical contrasts which were very popular at the end of the 1920s and during the 1930s, for example, the mixing highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin and furs. The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. Westwood. It was the trendiest barber shop in Britain by using metallic materials. The whole barber shop was a gleaming ovoid space of mirrors, marble, chrome and frosted glass. The most exciting design was the undulating waves lighting fixture that forming by the continuous arcs of neon tubing, and support by chrome structure. The used of new technologies and materials emphasis the feature of Art Deco style. The popular color themes in Art Deco consist of metallic color, neutral color, bright color and, black and white. The primary color use of Art Deco interior design is predominant by cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey and platinum. These metallic colors not only create a shiny and glitz look to express the wealth and prosperity of the times, but also emphasis the look of Art Deco interior design by giving life to the numerous geometrical shapes that defines this style. Serge Chermayeff is a Russian designer who made extensive use of cool metallic colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. The 1930 showroom for a British dressmaking firm has silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels which created a typical Art Deco of metallic look. Art Deco style color schemes started out with neutral colors such as beige, taupe, cream and medium brown. These neutral colors can easily achieve the feeling about streamlined and modern look. The black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s, like the black and white checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy in that times. As the style developed, bright vibrant colors became popular as well. For interior design, Art Deco incorporates a variety of creative colour combinations into its decor. The walls were often painted with a glossy finish to highlight the brightness of the Art Deco style. The colours were usually use plain and neutral colors with the bold, stylized and metallic patterns. The practice of painting each wall in a different color is very common in the Art Deco style of interior design. Since the furniture and lighting fixture are the very significant parts of interior design, the features of Art Deco style also work the same in furniture and lighting design as well. Art Deco Furnishings and lighting fixtures have a glossy, luxurious appearance. Art Deco is a streamlined, geometric style which often includes furniture pieces with curved edges, geometric shapes and clean lines. Art deco furniture use glossy and shiny with inlaid wood and reflective finishes. The materials of chrome, aluminium, glass, mirrors and lacquered wood can create glossy and brilliant surfaces that define this style. Art Deco lighting fixtures often make use of the stacked geometric patterns. Most fixtures were made from polished bronze, chrome or steel in order to create that shiny, sleek look that was most associated with Art Deco. Japanese materials

Japanese design is based strongly on craftsmanship, beauty, elaboration, and delicacy. The design of interiors is very simple but made with attention to detail and intricacy. This sense of intricacy and simplicity in Japanese designs is still valued in modern Japan as it was in traditional Japan. Japanese interior design is very efficient in the use of resources. Traditional and modern Japanese interiors have been flexible in use and designed mostly with natural materials. The spaces are used as multifunctional rooms. The rooms can be opened to create more space for an occasion or more private and closed-off by pulling closed paper screens called shoji. A large portion of Japanese interior walls are often made of shoji screens that can be pushed opened to join two rooms together, and then close them allowing more privacy. The shoji screens are made of paper attached in thin wooden frames that roll away on a track when they are pushed opened. Another large importance of the shoji screen besides privacy and seclusion is that they allow light through. This is an important aspect to Japanese design. Paper translucent walls allow light to be diffused through the space and create light shadows and patterns. Another way to connect rooms in Japan’s interiors is through Sliding panels made of wood and paper, like the shoji screens, or cloth. These panels are called Fusuma and are used as an entire wall. They are traditionally hand painted. Tatami mats are rice straw floor mats often used as the actual floor in Japan’s interiors; although in modern Japan, there usually are only one or two tatami rooms. A Tokonoma is often present in traditional, as well as modern Japanese living rooms. This determines the focus of the room and displays Japanese art; usually a painting or calligraphy. Interiors are very simple, highlighting minimal and natural decoration. Traditional Japanese interiors, as well as modern, incorporate mainly natural materials including fine woods, bamboo, silk, rice straw mats, and paper shoji screens. Natural materials are used to keep simplicity in the space that connects to nature. Natural color schemes are used and neutral palettes including black, white, off-white, gray, and brown. On television and radio

Interior design has become the subject of television shows. In the United Kingdom (UK), popular interior design and decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC) and Selling Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network aired a popular program called Trading Spaces, a show based on the UK program Changing Rooms. In Canada, popular shows include Divine Design with Candice Olsen and Design Inc., featuring Sarah Richardson. In addition, both Home & Garden Television (HGTV) and the Discovery Home networks also televise many programs about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators and home improvement experts in a myriad of projects. Fictional interior decorators include the Sugarbaker sisters on Designing Women and Grace Adler on Will & Grace. There is also another show called Home MADE. There are two teams and two houses and whoever has the designed and made the worst room, according to the judges, is eliminated. Another show on the Style Network, hosted by Niecy Nash, is Clean House where they re-do messy homes into themed rooms that the clients would like. Other shows include Design on a Dime, Designed to Sell and The Decorating Adventures of Ambrose Price. The show called Design Star has become more popular through the 5 seasons that have already aired. The winners of this show end up getting their own TV shows, of which are Color Splash hosted by David Bromstad, Myles of Style hosted by Kim Myles, Paint-Over! hosted by Jennifer Bertrand, The Antonio Treatment hosted by Antonio Ballatore, and finally Secrets from a Stylist hosted by Emily Henderson. Bravo (US TV channel) also has a variety of shows that explore the lives of interior designers. These include Flipping Out, which explores the life of Jeff Lewis and his team of designers; Million Dollar Decorators explores the lives of interior designers Nathan Turner, Jeffrey Alan Marks, Mary McDonald, Kathryn Ireland, and Martyn Lawrence Bullard. Interior design has also become the subject of radio shows. In the U.S., popular interior design & lifestyle shows include "Martha Stewart Living" and "Living Large" featuring Karen Mills. Famous interior designers whose work is featured on these programs include Bunny Williams, Barbara Barry, and Kathy Ireland, among others. In print and on the Internet in the US

Main article: Interior design magazine
Interior design magazines document the interior of homes, furniture, home accessories, textiles and architecture usually in a highly stylized or staged format. It may also feature cafes, historic houses, eco-friendly living and cutting edge design. Each issue or publication often acts as a “how to” guide for interior decorating and styling, as well as providing readers up to date design news and the latest trends. Contemporary houses in the magazines today are often highly styled photographs, which are done by interior stylists or decorators. They often do not feature people and just focus on the furniture or interior. Notable interior decorators

Other early interior decorators:

Sybil Colefax
Dorothy Draper
Pierre François Léonard Fontaine
Syrie Maugham
Elsie de Wolfe
Many of the most famous designers and decorators during the 20th Century had no formal training. Sister Parish, Robert Denning and Vincent Fourcade, Kerry Joyce, Kelly Wearstler, Stéphane Boudin, Georges Geffroy, Emilio Terry, Carlos de Beistegui, Nina Petronzio, Lorenzo Mongiardino, David Nightingale Hicks, Chris Vowles and many others were trend-setting innovators in the worlds of design and decoration. Notable Interior designers in the world today include Jonathan Adler, Kelly Hoppen, Tanya Gyani, Kelly Wearstler, and Andrew Martin. See also

Design portal
American Society of Interior Designers
Architecture
Blueprint
British Institute of Interior Design
Environmental psychology and Interior design psychology
Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis
Interior architecture
Interior design photo bank
Interior design regulation in the United States
Japanese Interior Design
Paint
Wall decals
References and sources

References
^ Pile, J, 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA
^ Pile, J, 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA
^ Flanner, J. (2009). "Archive, Handsprings Across the Sea". The New Yorker. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
^ Lees-Maffei, G, 2008, Introduction: Professionalization as a focus in Interior Design History, Journal of Design History, Vol. 21, No. 1, Spring.
^ Pile, J, 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA
^ Lees-Maffei, G, 2008, Introduction: Professionalization as a focus in Interior Design History, Journal of Design History, Vol. 21, No. 1, Spring.
^ Lees-Maffei, G, 2008, Introduction: Professionalization as a focus in Interior Design History, Journal of Design History, Vol. 21, No. 1, Spring.
^ Lees-Maffei, G, 2008, Introduction: Professionalization as a focus in Interior Design History, Journal of Design History, Vol. 21, No. 1, Spring.
^ Lees-Maffei, G, 2008, Introduction: Professionalization as a focus in Interior Design History, Journal of Design History, Vol. 21, No. 1, Spring.
^ Pile, J, 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA
^ Pile, J, 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA
^ Pile, J, 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA
^ Piotrowski, C, 2004, Becoming an Interior Designer, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, USA
^ Piotrowski, C, 2004, Becoming an Interior Designer, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, USA
^ Pile, J, 2003, Interior Design, 3rd edn, Pearson, New Jersey, USA
^ Piotrowski, C, 2004, Becoming an Interior Designer, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, USA
^ "Employment." Occupational Outlook Handbook: 2008-09 Edition, US Department of Labor
^ "Industrial Design Industry Report". ibisworld.com. July 17, 2008.
^ "Earnings", Occupational Outlook Handbook: 2008-09 Edition, US Department of Labor
^ Morin Rhonda (19 September 2010). "So, You Want to Be an Interior Designer". myinteriordecorator.com.
^ Tinniswood, Adrian. The Art Deco House: Avant-Garde House of the 1920s and 1930s. Watsonguptill publishing company. New York. 2002
^ Striner, Richard. "Art Deco: Polemics and Synthesis". WInterthur portfolio, Vol 25. No. 1 ( spring, 1990). PP. 26-34.
^ Beusterien, John. Rodriguez, EduardoLuis. Narciso G. "The Architectural Avant-Garde: From Art Deco to Modern Regionalism". The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, Vol. 22, Cuba Theme Issue (1996), PP. 254-277
^ Stanley, Meisler.’ Art Deco: High Style. Smithsonian’, Nov2004, Vol. 35 Issue 8, PP 57-60
^ Bayer, Patricia, Art Deco Interiors: Decoration and Design Classics of the 1920s and 1930s, Thames & Hudson, London 1990
^ Bayer, Patricia, Art Deco Interiors: Decoration and Design Classics of the 1920s and 1930s, Thames & Hudson, London 1990
^ Hunter, Penelope. ‘Art Deco: The Last Hurrah. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin’, New Series, Vol. 30, No. 6 (Jun.-Jul. 1972), PP. 257-300
^ Striner, Richard. PP. 26-34.
^ Yang, Jian. "Art Deco 1910-39". Craft Arts International, 2003, Issue 59, PP. 84-87.
^ Bayer, Patricia, Art Deco Interiors: Decoration and Design Classics of the 1920s and 1930s, Thames & Hudson, London 1990
^ Beusterien, John. The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, Vol. 22, Cuba Theme Issue (1996), PP. 254-277
^ Tinniswood, Adrian. ‘The Art Deco House: Avant-Garde House of the 1920s and 1930s’. New York. 2002
^ Bayer, Patricia, Art Deco Interiors: Decoration and Design Classics of the 1920s and 1930s, Thames & Hudson, London 1990
^ Striner, Richard. ‘Art Deco: Polemics and Synthesis’. PP. 26-34.
^ Yang, Jian. ‘Art Deco 1910-39’. Craft Arts International, 2003, Issue 59, PP. 84-87.
^ Rossi,David. ‘Art Deco Renaissance’. Silvester-Carr, Denise. History Today, Jul, Vol. 49. Issue 7. PP.4-6
^ Stanley, Meisler.’ Art Deco: High Style. Smithsonian’, Nov2004, Vol. 35 Issue 8, PP 57-60
^ Beusterien, John. Narciso G. ‘The Architectural Avant-Garde: From Art Deco to Modern Regionalism’. Smithsonian’, Nov2004, Vol. 35 Issue 8, PP 57-60
^ Tinniswood, Adrian. New York. 2002
^ Bayer, Patricia, Art Deco Interiors: Decoration and Design Classics of the 1920s and 1930s, Thames & Hudson, London 1990
^ Duncan, Alastair. "Art Deco Lighting". The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts. Vol. 1 (spring. 1986). PP. 20-31
^ http://www.spaciousplanet.com/world/new/7-principles-of-Japanese-Interior-Design
^ http://www.designsojourn.com/how-japanese-culture-influences-their-designs/
Sources
History of Interior Design, architectureweek.com
Ball, Victoria K.; Opportunities In Interior Design and Decorating Careers. USA: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Farr, Michael; Top 100 Careers for College Students. 7th ed. Indianapolis: JIST Works, 2007. US Census Bureau, Industrial Design NAICS Definition
Source
Description above from the Wikipedia article Interior design, licensed under CC-BY-SA full list of contributors here. Community Pages are not affiliated with, or endorsed by, anyone associated with the topic. For the successful ex*****on of a project, effective planning is essential. involved with the design and ex*****on of the infrastructure in question must consider the environmental impact of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, construction site safety, availability of building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays and bidding, etc. Contents [hide]
1 Types of construction projects
1.1 Building construction
1.2 Industrial construction
2 Construction processes
2.1 Design team
2.2 Financial advisors
2.3 Legal aspects
2.4 Interaction of expertise
2.5 Procurement
2.5.1 Traditional
2.5.2 Design and build
2.5.3 Management procurement systems
3 Authority having jurisdiction
4 Construction careers
5 History
6 See also
7 References
[edit]Types of construction projects



Construction of a prefabricated home
In general, there are three types of construction:
Building construction
Heavy / civil construction
Industrial construction
Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct and maintain the project.
[edit]Building construction
Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. The vast majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects include some elements in common - design, financial, estimating and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are always more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople. As residential (as well as all other types of construction) can generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is needed here. The most popular method of residential construction in the United States is wood framed construction. As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency, performance and reduce construction waste.
[edit]Industrial construction
Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very important component. Owners of these projects are usually large, for-profit, industrial corporations. These corporations can be found in such industries as Infrastructure, Power Transmission & Distribution, metallurgical and material handling, medicine, petroleum, chemical, power generation, manufacturing etc. Processes in these industries require highly specialized expertise in planning, cost estimating, design, and construction. As in building and heavy/highway construction, this type of construction requires a team of individuals to ensure a successful project often undertaken by big construction companies.
[edit]Construction processes

[edit]Design team


Shasta Dam under construction in June 1942
In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of drawings and specifications, usually prepared by a design team including surveyors, civil engineers, cost engineers (or quantity surveyors), mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. The design team is most commonly employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is completed by the design team, a number of construction companies or construction management companies may then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based directly on the design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the owner will typically award a contract to the most cost efficient bidder. The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties, especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers, construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or "construction management" firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to have an associated company that provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to end. This is designated as a "design Build" contract where the contractor is given a performance specification and must undertake the project from design to construction, while adhering to the performance specifications. Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build, partnering and construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers and constructors throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond traditional offerings of design or construction services alone and are placing more emphasis on establishing relationships with other necessary participants through the design-build process. The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. Building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.
[edit]Financial advisors
Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)


May 23, 2006

September 14, 2007 (3 months before completion)
Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials, and because they are a matter of having sufficient funds at a specific time, can arise even when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a problem in many fields, but is notoriously prevalent in the construction field[citation needed]. Financial planning for the project is intended to ensure that a solid plan with adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before the project is started and is required to ensure that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are likely participants in creating an overall plan for the financial management of the building construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Cost engineers and estimators apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor was able to identify change orders or changes in the project resulting in large increases in cost, which are not subject to competition by other firm as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.[1]
Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual estimate performed by a consulting estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carries forward. In many English-speaking countries, but not the United States, projects typically use quantity surveyors. In the United States construction estimating professionals like members of the American Society of Professional Estimators of the Consulting Estimators FORUM are typically employed.
[edit]Legal aspects

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2006)
Main article: Construction law


Construction along Ontario Highway 401, widening the road from six to twelve travel lanes. A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These include governmental regulations on the use of property, and obligations that are created in the process of construction. The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements. Constructing a project that fails to adhere to codes will not benefit the owner. Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent things that are indisputably bad - bridge collapses or explosions. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or things that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses to a business district and residences to a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law governing the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community). A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which must be carefully considered. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get the other side to agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible. The time element in construction means that a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be designed to ensure that each side is capable of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths to accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion and collapse. Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction project seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structure, and to present options for preventing problems. Throughout the process of the project, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project.
[edit]Interaction of expertise


Apartment complex under construction in Daegu, South Korea
Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate the need for building the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal structure must integrate the design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforce the financial consequences of the construction process.
[edit]Procurement
Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building. There are many different methods of construction procurement; however the three most common types of procurement are:
Traditional (Design-bid-build)
Design and Build
Management Contracting
There is also a growing number of new forms of procurement that involve relationship contracting where the emphasis is on a co-operative relationship between the principal and contractor and other stakeholders within a construction project. New forms include partnering such as Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka Private Finance Initiatives (PFIs) and alliances such as "pure" or "project" alliances and "impure" or "strategic" alliances. The focus on co-operation is to ameliorate the many problems that arise from the often highly competitive and adversarial practices within the construction industry.
[edit]Traditional
Main article: Design-bid-build
This is the most common method of construction procurement and is well established and recognized. In this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the project coordinator. His or her role is to design the works, prepare the specifications and produce construction drawings, administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. There are direct contractual links between the architect's client and the main contractor. Any subcontractor will have a direct contractual relationship with the main contractor.
[edit]Design and build
Main article: Design-build


Construction of the Phase-1 (first two towers) of the
Havelock City Project, Sri Lanka. This approach in Custom Home Construction has become more common in recent years in Orlando, FL, and involves the entire Custom Home Builder in the design/build process. The Custom Home Builder will be involved in all phases, early-on in the custom home build to ensure that the to complete an entire package for the customer. In some cases, the Design and Build (D & B) package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents. The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the project's goals. Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish these goals. The owner selects the ideas he likes best and hires the appropriate contractor. Often, it is not just one contractor, but a consortium of several contractors working together. Once a contractor (or a consortium/consortia) has been hired, they begin building the first phase of the project. As they build phase 1, they design phase 2. This is in contrast to a design-bid-build contract, where the project is completely designed by the owner, then bid on, then completed. Kent Hansen, pointed out that state departments of transportation (DOTs) usually use design build contracts as a way of getting projects done when states don't have the resources. In DOTs, design build contracts are usually used for very large projects.[2]
[edit]Management procurement systems
Main article: Construction management
In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the procurement system by entering into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), the construction manager, and individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they all work smoothly and effectively together. Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement processes, allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, the ability to appoint individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.
[edit]Authority having jurisdiction


The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with North America and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (November 2010)
See also: Planning permission


Construction on a building in Kansas City, Missouri


Construction of the Rivers Towers building in Cúcuta, Colombia. In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is the governmental agency or sub-agency which regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality in which the building is located. However, construction performed for supra-municipal authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning authority, which becomes the AHJ. During the planning of a building, the zoning and planning boards of the AHJ will review the overall compliance of the proposed building with the municipal General Plan and zoning regulations. Once the proposed building has been approved, detailed civil, architectural, and structural plans must be submitted to the municipal building department (and sometimes the public works department) to determine compliance with the building code and sometimes for fit with existing infrastructure. Often, the municipal fire department will review the plans for compliance with fire-safety ordinances and regulations. Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to verify and have existing utility lines marked, either by the utilities themselves or through a company specializing in such services. This lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities, which could cause outages and potentially hazardous situations. During the construction of a building, the municipal building inspector inspects the building periodically to ensure that the construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete and a final inspection has been passed, an occupancy permit may be issued. An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. The fire code is enforced by the local fire department. Changes made to a building that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ for review concerning the building code.
[edit]Construction careers


The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United Kingdom and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (November 2010)


Helicopter view of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Operations Support Facility (OSF) construction site. Credit ESO. Ironworkers erecting the steel frame of a new building at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry which vary by country. However, there are three main tiers of careers based on educational background which are common internationally:
Unskilled and Semi-Skilled - General site labour with little or no construction qualifications. Skilled - On-site managers whom possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or profession. Technical and Management - Personnel with the greatest educational qualifications, usually graduate degrees, trained to design, manage and instruct the construction process. Skilled occupations in the UK require further education qualifications, often in vocational subject areas. These qualifications are either obtained directly after the completion of compulsory education or through "on the job" apprenticeship training. In the UK, 8500 construction-related apprenticeships were commenced in 2007.[3]
Technical and specialised occupations require more training as a greater technical knowledge is required. These professions also hold more legal responsibility. A short list of the main careers with an outline of the educational requirements are given below:[4]
Architect - Typically holds 1, Undergraduate 3 year degree in architecture + 1, Post-Graduate 2 year degree (DipArch or BArch) in architecture plus 24 months experience within the industry. To use the title "architect" the individual must be registered on the Architects Registration Board register of Architects. Civil Engineer - Typically holds a degree in a related subject. The Chartered Engineer qualification is controlled by the Engineering council, and is often achieved through membership of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A new university graduate must hold a master's degree to become chartered, persons with bachelor's degrees may become an Incorporated Engineer. Building Services Engineer - Often referred to as an "M&E Engineer" typically holds a degree in mechanical or electrical engineering. Chartered Engineer status is governed by the Engineering Council, mainly through the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers. Project Manager - Typically holds a 4-year or greater higher education qualification, but are often also qualified in another field such as quantity surveying or civil engineering. Quantity Surveyor - Typically holds a master's degree in quantity surveying. Chartered status is gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Structural Engineer - Typically holds a bachelors or master's degree in structural engineering, new university graduates must hold a master's degree to gain chartered status from the Engineering Council, mainly through the Institution of Structural Engineers. In 2010 a salary survey revealed the differences in remuneration between different roles, sectors and locations in the construction and built environment industry.[5] The results showed that areas of particularly strong growth in the construction industry, such as the Middle East, yield higher average salaries than in the UK for example. The average earning for a professional in the construction industry in the Middle East, across all sectors, job types and levels of experience, is £42,090, compared to £26,719 in the UK.[6] This trend is not necessarily due to the fact that more affluent roles are available however as architects with 14 or more years experience working in the Middle East earns on average £43,389 per annum, compared to £40,000 in the UK.[6]
[edit]History



A picture of an Under Construction Building in Modern India
Main article: History of construction
See also: History of architecture
The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters, appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers. Modern-day Construction involves creating awesome structures that can show the beauty and creativity of the human intellect.