CIVIL Engineers

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Surveying

FOUNDATION SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BUILDINGS


Selection criteria for foundation for buildings depend on two factors, i.e. factors related to ground (soil) conditions and factors related to loads from the structure. The performance of foundation is based on interface between the loads from the structure and the supporting ground or strata. The nature and conditions of each of these varies, so, the selection of appropriate foundation becomes necessary for these variations depending on circumstances.

foundation
Selection of Foundation based on Ground Conditions:

The ground or soil condition is necessary for determining the type of suitable foundation. The soil on which the industrial, commercial or residential building rests may be stable, level and of uniform composition, but in some situations it may be otherwise.

Following are criteria for selecting suitable foundation based on soil condition:

Where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure loads, shallow foundations can be provided.
Where the ground close to surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, hard strata is searched for, and in some cases, it may be very deep, like in case of multi-storey buildings, where loads are very high. So, deep foundations are suitable for such cases.
Field up ground have low bearing capacity, so deep foundation is required at that place, whereas uniform stable ground needs relatively shallow foundation.
Level of the ground also affects foundation selection. If the ground is not levelled, and has gradient then step foundation may be preferred.

Selection of foundation based on Loads from Building:

The loading condition i.e. type and magnitude of loads, depends on the form and type of building to be constructed. In case of low rise building with large span, the extent of loading is relatively modest, so shallow foundation is preferred in this case. While high-rise building with short span has high loads. Therefore, deep foundation is required in such cases. Deep foundation is provided because ground at greater depth are highly compacted.

In case of framed structure multi-storey building, where loads are concentrated at the point of application, the use of pads and piles are common. Where, loads of the buildings are uniformly distributed, like from masonry claddings, the piles are not needed.

35 Fundamental Facts About Civil Engineering

If you’re interested in a civil engineering career, you may not know that this science is as old as the hills, yet as young as the 18th century. Additionally, there are at least ten sub-disciplines within this field that range from engineering buildings to sea walls to roller coasters and to water slides. If you’ve ever marveled at the Hoover Dam or the Empire State Building, then you’ve witnessed the technology, design and science of civil engineering. This list provides 35 fundamental facts about this career, its diversity and its engineering wonders.

About Civil Engineering
Engineering Students
Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the terms engineer and architect often referred to the same person until the 18th century.

In the 18th century, the term “civil engineering” came into use to describe engineering work that was performed by civilians for nonmilitary purposes.

The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.

Civil engineers frequently work on complex projects which involve many technical, economic, social and environmental factors.

Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.

Civil engineers also help to preserve the environment by assisting in the cleaning up of existing pollution and planning ways to reduce future pollution of air, land and water.

The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University, Vermont, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.

The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.

The first civil engineering degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.

The Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) was founded in a coffee shop in London in 1818 by eight young civil engineers, the youngest was 19.

The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) was founded in 1852. It is the oldest national engineering society in the United States.

All 50 States and the District of Columbia require licensure for engineers who offer their services directly to the public.

According to a 2009 survey, people with a bachelor’s degree in civil engineering started at $52,048 a year on average.
Civil Engineering Sub-Disciplines
Urban Architecture
Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. The term coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include techniques that allow erosion to claim land.

Construction engineering involves planning and ex*****on of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers.

Earthquake engineering is dedicated to reducing earthquake risk by advancing the practice of this science.

Environmental engineering can be involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology and involves protecting the environment and human health.

Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned with the rock and soil that supports civil engineering projects.
Materials engineering and sciences deals with materials such as concrete, mix asphalt concrete, metals as well as paints and finishes.

Municipal or urban engineering involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works, public parks and bicycle paths.

Structural engineering is concerned with designing structures to be safe and serviceable for their users

Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community.

Water resources engineering is a discipline that combines hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, geology, conservation, and resource management.
Civil Engineering Feats
Burj Al Arab
The longest street in the world is Toronto’s Yonge Street, listed as 1,178 miles (1,896 km) in length — roughly the distance from San Diego, California, to Seattle, Washington.

A civil engineer created the slippery part of the water slide. Without the right flow of water, there is no ride.

The Channel Tunnel is one of the greatest civil engineering projects of the 20th century, has an ultimate design capacity of 600 trains per day each way under the English Channel.

The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, also known as the Pearl Bridge, has the longest central span of any suspension bridge. The central span is a staggering 1,991 meters, or 6,532 ft.

It took a century to overcome deep waters, strong winds, and high chance of earthquakes to build the Rion-Antirion Bridge. Completed in 2004, it spans the Gulf of Corinth and won an Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement award.

The Itaipu Dam, located at the Brazilian-Paraguayan border, is the largest operating hydroelectric facility in terms of annual generating capacity.

The Golden Gate Bridge is one of the longest suspension bridges in the world and has become an internationally recognized symbol of San Francisco and California.

The Empire State Building was built in just 18 months during the Great Depression and was one of the first to employ the then new fast track construction technique. Following the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City and New York State.

the Hoover Dam, standing 726.4 feet high, is one of the tallest concrete dams ever built and created one of the largest man-made lakes in the U.S.

The Burj Al Arab is a 5-star luxury HOTEL LOCATED in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. At 321 m (1,053 ft), it is the fourth tallest hotel in the world. The shape of the structure is designed to mimic the sail of a ship.

The Netherlands North Sea Protection Works is a marvel of coastal engineering created to protect a large area of land around the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta from the sea.

The Millennium Force Roller Coaster in Sandusky, Ohio, is the world’s tallest (310 feet) and fastest (92 mph) roller coaster, and is supported by 226 footers using 9,400 yards of concrete. It took 175 truckloads of steel to create the frame.

11 Facts About Earthquakes

1. Natural events such as volcanic eruptions and meteor impacts can cause earthquakes, but the majority of naturally-occurring earthquakes are triggered by movement of the earth's plates.

2.The earth's surface consists of 20 constantly moving plates. The pressure increase from shifting plates can cause the crust to break. This break allows stress to be released as energy, which moves through the earth in the form of waves (aka earthquakes).

3.Normally, it's not the shaking ground itself that claims lives during an earthquake. It's the associated destruction of man-made structures and the instigation of other natural disasters such as tsunamis, avalanches and landslides. Not only is it important to have a plan for yourself in the case of an earthquake, but your pets need a disaster plan as well. Create an earthquake plan for the animals around so if disaster strikes, you’ll be prepared. Sign up for Save Our Pets.

4.The National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) records an average of 20,000 earthquakes every year (about 50 a day) around the world. There are, however, millions of earthquakes estimated to occur every year that are too weak to be recorded.

5.Each year the southern California area has about 10,000 earthquakes -- the majority of which go unnoticed. However, if there is a large earthquake the aftershock sequence will produce many more earthquakes of all magnitudes for months.

6.Almost 80% of all the planet's earthquakes occur along the rim of the Pacific Ocean, called the "Ring of Fire"; a region that encircles the Pacific Ocean and is home to 452 volcanoes (over 75% of the world's active and dormant volcanoes).

7.The largest recorded earthquake in the United States was a magnitude 9.2 that struck Prince William Sound, Alaska on March 28, 1964.

8.The largest recorded earthquake in the world was a magnitude 9.5 in Chile on May 22, 1960.

9.When the Chilean earthquake occurred in 1960, seismographs recorded seismic waves that traveled around the world. These seismic waves shook the entire earth for many days.

10.An undersea earthquake in the Indian Ocean triggered a series of devastating tsunamis on Dec. 26, 2004. The tsunamis struck the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, bringing 100-foot waves and killing over 225,000 people in 11 countries.

11.Alaska is the most earthquake-prone state and one of the most seismically active regions in the world. The region experiences a magnitude 7.0 earthquake almost every year and a magnitude 8.0 or greater earthquake approximately once every 14 years.

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An earthquake is vibration of earth surface by waves emerging from the source of disturbance in the earth by virtue of release of energy in the earth’s crust. It is essentially a sudden and transient motion or series of motions of the earth surface originating in a limited under ground motion due to disturbance of the elastic equilibrium of the earth mass and spreading from there in all directions.

REASONS FOR HIGH CASUALITY:

1) Urbanization is rapidly increasing and due to increase in land cost, many multi storied buildings are being constructed.


2) Code is not mandatory.

3) Construction as such is governed by municipal bye-laws.

4) Seismic provisions are not incorporated.

5) Non enforceation of elaborated checks proper ways.

6) No checks even for simple ordinary design.

earthquake resistent design guidelines

GENERAL GUIDE LINES:

Drift:

It is the maximum lateral displacement of the structure with respect to total height or relative inter-storey displacement. The overall drifts index is the ratio of maximum roof displacement to the height of the structure and inter-storey drift is the ratio of maximum difference of lateral displacement at top and bottom of the storey divided by the storey height.

Non structural elements and structural non seismic members primarily get damaged due to drift. Higher the lateral stiffness lesser is the likely damage. The storey drift in any storey due to minimum specified design lateral force with partial safety factor of unity shall not exceed 0.004 times the storey height.

Separation between adjacent units or buildings:

Two adjacent buildings or two adjacent units of the same building with separation joint in between shall be separated by distance equal to the amount R times the sum of the calculated storey displacements as specified above of each of them to avoid damaging contact when the two units deflect towards each other.

Soft storey:

Soft storey or flexible storey is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that in the storey above or less than 80% of the average lateral stiffness of the three storeys above. In case of buildings with a flexible storey such as ground storey consisting of open spaces for parking i.e. stilt buildings, special arrangements are need to be made to increase the lateral strength and stiffness of the soft storey.

For such buildings, dynamic analysis is carried out including the strength and stiffness effects of infills and inelastic deformations in the members particularly those in the soft storey and members designed accordingly. Alternatively, the following design criteria are to be adopted after carrying the earthquake analysis neglecting the effect of infill walls in other storeys.

When the floor levels of two similar adjacent buildings are at the same elevation levels, factor R can be taken as R/2.

a) The columns and beams of the soft storey are to be designed for 2.5 times the storey shear and moments calculated under seismic loads specified.

b) Besides the columns designed and detailed for calculated storey shears and moments, shear walls placed symmetrically in both directions of the building as far away from the centre of the building as feasible to be designed exclusively for 1.25 times the lateral storey shear calculated.

Foundation:

The use of foundations vulnerable to significant differential settlement due to ground shaking shall be avoided for structures in seismic zones-III, IV & V. individual spread footings or pile caps shall be interconnected with ties except when individual spread footings are directly supported on rock. All ties shall be capable of carrying in tension and in compression an axial force equal to Ah/A times the larger of the column or pile cap load in addition to the otherwise computed forces where Ah is the design horizontal spectrum value.

Projections:

a) vertical projections:

Tanks, towers parapets, chimneys and other vertical cantilever projections attached to buildings and projecting the above roof shall be designed and checked for stability for 5 times the design horizontal seismic co-efficient Ah. In the analysis of the building, the weight of these projecting elements will be lumped with the roof weight.

b) horizontal projections:

All horizontal projections like cornices and balconies shall be designed and checked for stability for 5 times the design vertical co- efficient equal to 10/3 Ah. These increased design forces either for vertical projection or horizontal projection are only for designing the projecting parts and their connection with the main structures.

This means that for the design of main structure such increase need not to be considered.

Shape of the building:

Very slender buildings should be avoided. Large overhangs and projections attract large earthquake forces. Heavy masses like large water tanks, etc., at the top shall be avoided. Small water tanks, if provided, should be properly connected with the framing system. Building should be sufficiently be away from steep slopes. It should be built on filled up soil.

Asymmetry should be avoided as they undergo torsion and extreme corners are subjected to very large earthquake forces.

Damping:

Damping is the removal of kinetic energy and potential energy from a vibrating structure and by virtue of which the amplitude of vibration diminishes steadily. Some vibrations are due to initial displacement or initial velocity. Due to damping, these vibrations decay in amplitude.

1. When there is harmonic applied force and its period is nearly equal to the natural period of the structure. The vibration will grow from zero displacement and velocity. Damping limits the vibration maximum amplitude.

2. More damping less is the amplitude.

3. Negative damping may arise while the vibration is small, followed by positive damping at large amplitude vibrations. The code adopted for design of multistoried buildings considering seismic forces is IS 1893 (part I) – 2002. more than 60% area of India is earthquake prone. According to IS 1893 (part I) – 2002, India is divided into several zones to their magnitude of intensities...... (copied)

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Isolated Footing

Conway Suspension Bridge

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First World Problems

Earthquake effect according to Intensity....

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