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The Brain and Nervous System.

The brain is the most complex part of the human body. It is the center of consciousness and also controls all voluntary and involuntary movement and bodily functions. It communicates with each part of the body through the nervous system, a network of channels that carry electrochemical signals.

Learning Objectives
Name the various parts of the nervous system and their respective functions
Explain how neurons communicate with each other
Identify the location and function of the limbic system
Articulate how the primary motor cortex is an example of brain region specialization
Name at least three neuroimaging techniques and describe how they work.

Manage Blood Sugar.

It’s important to keep your blood sugar levels in your target range as much as possible to help prevent or delay long-term, serious health problems, such as heart disease, vision loss, and kidney disease. Staying in your target range can also help improve your energy and mood. Find answers below to common questions about blood sugar for people with diabetes.

How can I check my blood sugar?
Use a blood sugar meter (also called a glucometer) or a continuous glucose monitor (CGM) to check your blood sugar. A blood sugar meter measures the amount of sugar in a small sample of blood, usually from your fingertip. A CGM uses a sensor inserted under the skin to measure your blood sugar every few minutes. If you use a CGM, you’ll still need to test daily with a blood sugar meter to make sure your CGM readings are accurate.

When should I check my blood sugar?
How often you check your blood sugar depends on the type of diabetes you have and if you take any diabetes medicines.

Typical times to check your blood sugar include:

When you first wake up, before you eat or drink anything.
Before a meal.
Two hours after a meal.
At bedtime.
If you have type 1 diabetes, have type 2 diabetes and take insulin, or often have low blood sugar, your doctor may want you to check your blood sugar more often, such as before and after you’re physically active.

Food supplements
A third of the population living in western countries take food supplements regularly.
A vitamin boost to prepare for winter, omega-3 to perk up your memory before an exam, or calcium to strengthen bones… Successful advertising campaigns have made taking food supplements second nature in today’s world. The number of consumers worldwide is growing just as fast as the variety of products and their alleged effects. More than half of all adults take them in the United States, with women and the elderly comprising the majority of consumers. In Europe, rates of consumption are 59% in Denmark, 43% in Germany, 20% in France and 9% in Spain.1
Yet what exactly is a food supplement? It is a concentrated source of nutrients, either vitamins (especially A, B, C, D and E), minerals (calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, selenium, sodium, copper etc.) or other substances that have a nutritional or physiological effect. As their name suggests, food supplements are not intended to replace a varied and balanced diet, but to supplement it. They come in all shapes and forms, such as capsules, lozenges, tablets, powders, vials of liquid etc., and are sold in chemist’s, in supermarkets, over the Internet and sometimes in specialised stores (such as General Nutrition Centers in the United States).
In the same way as consumption varies, the classification of dietary supplements also differs from one country to another. According to Pierre-Yves Rodondi of the IUMSP University Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine in Lausanne, Switzerland, “Several European countries and the United States classify herbal products as food supplements. In other European countries, such as Switzerland, plant-based preparations are monitored by the authorities and are not considered to be food.” Therefore, plants such as kava, St John’s wort, and valerian are available in American supermarkets, but not necessarily in Europe.

Healthy Eating Benefits?
A healthy diet may help to prevent certain long-term (chronic) diseases such as heart disease, stroke and diabetes. It may also help to reduce your risk of developing some cancers and help you to keep a healthy weight. This leaflet explains the principles of a healthy diet. It is general advice for most people. The advice may be different for certain groups of people, including pregnant women, people with certain health problems or those with special dietary requirements.
Food groups
Your body needs energy to work normally and keep you alive. You obtain this energy from nutrients in the food that you eat - mostly, carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Minerals and vitamins are other nutrients that are also important in your diet to help your body stay healthy.
It is important to find the right balance between these different nutrients to achieve maximum health benefits (see below). A balanced diet generally contains food from each of the following food groups:
Starchy foods such as bread, rice, potatoes, pasta, etc.
Fruit and vegetables.
Milk and dairy foods.
Protein foods. These include meat, fish, eggs and other non-dairy sources of protein (including nuts, tofu, beans, pulses, etc).
Fatty and sugary foods are the fifth food group that you eat. However, only a small amount of what you eat should be made up from fatty and sugary foods.
In addition to the above, having plenty of fibre and water in your diet is also important for your health.

5 benefits of regular physical activity?
1. Exercise controls weight
Exercise can help prevent excess weight gain or help maintain weight loss. When you engage in physical activity, you burn calories. The more intense the activity, the more calories you burn.
Regular trips to the gym are great, but don't worry if you can't find a large chunk of time to exercise every day. Any amount of activity is better than none at all. To reap the benefits of exercise, just get more active throughout your day — take the stairs instead of the elevator or rev up your household chores. Consistency is key.
2. Exercise combats health conditions and diseases
Worried about heart disease? Hoping to prevent high blood pressure? No matter what your current weight is, being active boosts high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the "good" cholesterol, and it decreases unhealthy triglycerides. This one-two punch keeps your blood flowing smoothly, which decreases your risk of cardiovascular diseases.
Regular exercise helps prevent or manage many health problems and concerns, including:
Stroke
Metabolic syndrome
High blood pressure
Type 2 diabetes
Depression
Anxiety
Many types of cancer
Arthritis
Falls
It can also help improve cognitive function and helps lower the risk of death from all causes.
3. Exercise improves mood
Need an emotional lift? Or need to destress after a stressful day? A gym session or brisk walk can help. Physical activity stimulates various brain chemicals that may leave you feeling happier, more relaxed and less anxious.
You may also feel better about your appearance and yourself when you exercise regularly, which can boost your confidence and improve your self-esteem.
4. Exercise boosts energy
Winded by grocery shopping or household chores? Regular physical activity can improve your muscle strength and boost your endurance.
Exercise delivers oxygen and nutrients to your tissues and helps your cardiovascular system work more efficiently. And when your heart and lung health improve, you have more energy to tackle daily chores.
5. Exercise promotes better sleep
Struggling to snooze? Regular physical activity can help you fall asleep faster, get better sleep and deepen your sleep. Just don't exercise too close to bedtime, or you may be too energized to go to sleep.

Mental Health Program.
Under the leadership of former First Lady Rosalynn Carter, a longtime champion for the rights of people with mental illnesses, the Carter Center's Mental Health Program works to promote awareness about mental health issues, inform public policy, achieve equity for mental health care comparable to other health care, and reduce stigma and discrimination against those with mental illnesses.
How Common are Mental Illnesses?
Mental illnesses are among the most common health conditions in the United States and around the world. Around one in five American adults experience some form of mental illness.
Even the most serious mental health conditions can be treated, however, allowing people to better contribute to their families and communities.
Our Strategy
The Mental Health Program uses the Center's convening power to bring together health leaders and organizations to discuss important public policy issues facing mental health and substance use care systems nationwide and at the state level. In addition, the Mental Health Program is part of an international effort to reduce stigma and discrimination against people living with mental health and substance use conditions. The Center works with key partners at the government and community levels to help build sustainable mental health care infrastructure in post-conflict Liberia.

Why We Still Use “Organic Causes”: Results From a Survey of Psychiatrists and Residents.
The diagnostic category of “organic disorders” was officially removed from the psychiatric nosology in DSM-IV, published in 1994. Despite this change, physicians continue to use the term “organic causes” to refer to medical and neurological causes of psychiatric symptoms, and it remains part of the ICD-10 classification. In the context of increasing integration of psychiatric disorders within a medical and neuroscientific framework, the reasons behind the ongoing use of this term (reminiscent of mind-body dualism) have to be clarified. The authors conducted a survey of 391 Canadian psychiatrists and psychiatric residents to understand attitudes and beliefs related to this terminology and then applied qualitative and quantitative analyses. Results showed that the terminology is used by the majority (55.9%) of psychiatrists and residents for two main reasons: out of a habit that begins in residency training and because of the belief that other specialties do not fully understand alternative terminology. The authors found that some psychiatrists are concerned that their patients will not receive adequate investigation unless it is made clear through the use of the “organic cause” term that other medical causes of psychiatric symptoms are suspected. The use of the “organic cause” term was predicted by being of younger age, performing emergency department calls, and finding alternative terminology difficult to use. These findings highlight the importance of reflecting on and discussing the effect of this terminology used in psychiatry.
When the first DSM was published in 1952, mental disorders were divided into two major groups: “disorders caused by or associated with impairment of brain tissue function,” and “disorders of the psychogenic origin or without clearly defined physical cause or structural change in the brain.” The first category, referred to as “organic syndromes,” included symptoms caused by infection, intoxication, or trauma; the second category included depression, personality disorders, and schizophrenia. As reviewed by Bürgy,1 these categorizations were in turn based on a tradition dating back to the work of Möbius, who made a distinction between “endogenous” and “exogenous” psychoses in 1892. This distinction was maintained by authors such as Kraepelin, Jaspers, and Bonhoeffer and then crystallized by “Burke's equation of exogenous and somatogenic.”

cience-Based Health Benefits of Moringa oleifera
Moringa oleifera is a plant that has been praised for its health benefits for thousands of years.
It is very rich in healthy antioxidants and bioactive plant compounds.
So far, scientists have only investigated a fraction of the many reputed health benefits.
Here are 6 health benefits of Moringa oleifera that are supported by scientific research.
1. Moringa oleifera Is Very Nutritious
Moringa oleifera is a fairly large tree native to North India.
It goes by a variety of names, such as drumstick tree, horseradish tree or ben oil tree.
Almost all parts of the tree are eaten or used as ingredients in traditional herbal medicines.
This especially applies to the leaves and pods, which are commonly eaten in parts of India and Africa (1Trusted Source).
Below is a photo of Moringa oleifera leaves, powder and capsules:
Moringa leaves are an excellent source of many vitamins and minerals. One cup of fresh, chopped leaves (21 grams) contains (2Trusted Source):
Protein: 2 grams
Vitamin B6: 19% of the RDA
Vitamin C: 12% of the RDA
Iron: 11% of the RDA
Riboflavin (B2): 11% of the RDA
Vitamin A (from beta-carotene): 9% of the RDA
Magnesium: 8% of the RDA
In Western countries, the dried leaves are sold as dietary supplements, either in powder or capsule form.
Compared to the leaves, the pods are generally lower in vitamins and minerals. However, they are exceptionally rich in vitamin C. One cup of fresh, sliced pods (100 grams) contains 157% of your daily requirement.
The diet of people in developing nations sometimes lacks vitamins, minerals and protein. In these countries, Moringa oleifera can be an important source of many essential nutrients.
However, there is one downside: Moringa leaves may also contain high levels of antinutrients, which can reduce the absorption of minerals and protein (3Trusted Source, 4).
Another thing to keep in mind is that taking Moringa oleifera supplements in capsules won’t supply a large number of nutrients.
The amounts are negligible compared to what you consume if you eat a balanced diet based on whole foods.

I HAVE ARTHRITIS, SHOULD I EXERCISE?
Exercise is one of the best ways to improve symptoms of Arthritis
Why is exercise important?
Physical activity is a great way to increase your physical and mental health and can also reduce the symptoms of arthritis.
Being active can:
Reduce chance of join and back pain by 25%
Reduce falls and depression by 30%
Improve your quality of life
How much exercise should I do and how often?
Any amount of exercise is better than nothing so it is always worth starting small and gradually increasing as you get more confident.
Adults and older adults should aim for 150 minutes of moderate-intensity activity per week or 75 minutes of vigorous activity per week.
It is good to remember that you don’t have to do this all in one go and breaking it up into smaller more manageable chunks is perfectly fine.

Impressive Ways Vitamin C Benefits Your Body.
Vitamin C is an essential vitamin, meaning your body can’t produce it. Yet, it has many roles and has been linked to impressive health benefits.
It’s water-soluble and found in many fruits and vegetables, including oranges, strawberries, kiwi fruit, bell peppers, broccoli, kale, and spinach.
The recommended daily intake for vitamin C is 75 mg for women and 90 mg for men (1Trusted Source).
While it’s commonly advised to get your vitamin C intake from foods, many people turn to supplements to meet their needs.
Here are 7 scientifically proven benefits of taking a vitamin C supplement.

Powerful Health Benefits Of Moringa Powder + How To Use It
Meet moringa oleifera. In its native India and Nepal, it's known as "drumstick tree," "miracle tree," and "tree of life"; today it's also grown in Africa, Latin America, and Asia and also goes by the "horseradish tree." And moringa powder, made from the leaves of the moringa tree, has a number of science-backed benefits and medicinal uses. This superfood has been used as a traditional remedy in phytomedicine and ayurvedic healing for thousands of years. Here are the 10 best health benefits of moringa oleifera, plus our favorite ways to add this super green to your diet:

The Benefits of Vitamin C
Vitamin C is one of the safest and most effective nutrients, experts say. Though it may not be the cure for the common cold, the benefits of vitamin C may include protection against immune system deficiencies, cardiovascular disease, prenatal health problems, eye disease, and even skin wrinkling. The tolerable upper intake level (or the maximum amount you can take in a day that likely won’t cause harm) is 2000 mg a day for adults.
A recent study published in Seminars in Preventive and Alternative Medicine that looked at over 100 studies over 10 years revealed a growing list of possible benefits of vitamin C.
"Vitamin C has received a great deal of attention, and with good reason. Higher blood levels of vitamin C may be the ideal nutrition marker for overall health," says study researcher Mark Moyad, MD, MPH, of the University of Michigan. "The more we study vitamin C, the better our understanding of how diverse it is in protecting our health, from cardiovascular, cancer, stroke, eye health [and] immunity to living longer."
"But," Moyad notes, "the ideal dosage may be higher than the recommended dietary allowance."

What is an immunodeficiency disorder?
Immunodeficiency disorders prevent your body from fighting infections and diseases. This type of disorder makes it easier for you to catch viruses and bacterial infections.
Immunodeficiency disorders are either congenital or acquired. A congenital, or primary, disorder is one you were born with. Acquired, or secondary, disorders you get later in life. Acquired disorders are more common than congenital disorders.
Your immune system includes the following organs:
spleen
tonsils
bone marrow
lymph nodes
These organs make and release lymphocytes. These are white blood cells classified as B cells and T cells. B and T cells fight invaders called antigens. B cells release antibodies specific to the disease your body detects. T cells destroy foreign or abnormal cells.
Examples of antigens that your B and T cells might need to fight off include:
bacteria
viruses
cancer cells
parasites
An immunodeficiency disorder disrupts your body’s ability to defend itself against these antigens.